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1 - to express a temporal
circumstance 1.1 contemporaneus action 1.1.1 cum with the indicative: general chronological coincidence between two actions Iudex damnatur, cum nocens absolvitur. 1.1.2 historical cum with the subjunctive imperfect (temporal circumstance with a causal element) Cum essem Brundisii, litteras tuas accepi. Haec cum ita essent, Caesar exploratores misit. 1.1.3 dum with the indicative (does not coincide with the beginning and end of the main one) Dum Romae consulitur, Saguntum expugantur. 1.1.4 dum, donec, quoad with the indicative (indicates an action which begins and ends, or at least end, at the same time as the action in the main clause) Donec felix eris, multos numerabis amicos. 1.1.5 clauses with quotiens and quotienscumque (occurs repeatedly) Quotienscumque loquor, in iudicium ingenii venio. 1.1.6 participle construction with the present participle Occisus est a cena rediens. 1.1.7 ablative absolute with the present participle Crescente pecunia crescit avaritia. Cicerone consule facta est coniuratio. 1.2 Limiting action 1.2.1 dum, donec, quoad with the indicative Dum mihi a te litterae veniaant, in Italia morabor. 1.2.2 dum, donec, quoad with the subjunctive (to represent also its purpose) 1.3 Preceding action 1.3.1 the historical cum with the subjunctive pluperfect Cum haec dixisset, silentium est consecutum. 1.3.2 clauses with postquam (with perfect or pluperfect indicative) Postquam te aspexit, extimuit. 1.3.3 participle construction with the perfect participle Terra mutata mutavit mores. 1.3.4 ablative absolute with the perfect participle Urbe expugnata imperator rediit. 1.4 immediately preceding action 1.4.1 clauses with cum primum, simul ac, ubi (primum), ut (primum) Cum primum potuit, Caesar ad exercitum contendit. Simul ac consitituero, ad te scribam. Ubi dux dixit, milites conclamaverunt. Ut Romam venit, praetor factus est. 1.5 Subsequent action 1.5.1 clauses with priusquam and antequam [constructed with indicative, if the action is potential with subjunctive.] * Referring to the present: present indicative, perfect indicative or subjunctive present Fulgorem cernimus antequam tonitrum accipimus. * Referring to the past: perfect indicative, subjunctive imperfect. Hostes fugere non destiterunt priusquam ad flumen advenerum. Collem celeriter communivit priusquam ad adversariis sentiretur. * Referring to the future: present indicative, subjunctive present, future perfect ] Antequam de re publica dicam, de me enarrabo. 1.6 Adversary action 1.6.1 clauses with the inverse cum Contains adverbs: iam, vix, aegre, prope, nondum: constructed with the perfect indicative, while the main clause has the indicative in a past tense Romani prope Pyrrhum vicerent, cum elephanti procucurrerunt. |
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2 - expressing a causal circumstance 2.1 clauses with quod and quia [constructed with indicative for objective statement] [constructed with subjunctive for subjective statement] Nemo patriam quia magna est amat, sed quia sua. Agunt gratias quod sibi pepercissent. 2.2 clauses with quoniam and quando [constructed with indicative] Quoniam iam est nox, in tecta vestra discedite! Voluptas semovenda est, quando ad maiora quaedam nati sumus. 2.3 clauses with the causal cum [ constructed with subjunctive] Cum id facere non possem, quievi. 2.4 relative causal clause [constructed with subjunctive preceded with quipped, utpote, ut] Eos libros non contemno, quippe quos numquam legerim. 2.5 participle construction His nuntiis commotus Caesar duas legiones conscrpsit. |
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3 - expressing purpose [constructed with the subjunctive following the rules of the sequence of tenses] 3.1 clauses with the final ut Non ut edam vivo, sed ut vivam edo. Viatores non eunt ut eant. Nolo esse laudator ne videar adulator. Legati venerunt ut pacem peterent. 3.2 purpose clauses with quo Legem brevem esse oportet quo facilius ab imperitis teneatur. 3.3 relative purpose clauses Legati missi sunt qui pacem peterent. 3.4 gerund or gerundive construction Ad dissimulandum paratus est. Ad foedus faciendum duces prodeunt. 3.5 future active participle Venit pacem petiturus. 3.6 accusative supine Cubitum eo. Spectatum veniunt, veniunt spectentur ut ipsae. |
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4 - expressing a result 4.1 clauses with the consecutive ut Nemo adeo ferus est ut non mitescere possit. Ita vixi ut me non frustra natum existimem. Ille sic Graece loquebatur ut Athenis natus videretur. Cleopatra erat tantae pulchritudinis ut multi illius noctem morte emerint. Numquam tam male est Siculis quin aliquid facete et commode dicant. 4.2 relative result clauses Used after certain expressions: e.g. sunt qui, non sunt qui, reperiuntur qui, inveniuntur qui, nemo est qui, nihil est quod, quis est qui, solus est qui Also used after the adjectives dignus, indignus, aptus and idoneus. Sunt quibus in satura videar nimis acer. Dignus est qui laudetur. Haec sola res est quae nos adiuvare possit. |
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5 - expressing a concession [constructed with the subjunctive following the rules of the sequence of tenses] In the main clause we may use the adverbs: tamen, attamen, nihilominus, certe in the sense of "nevertheless" 5.1 clauses with quamquam, quamvis, licet, etsi, etiamsi, tametsi Quamquam omnis virtus nos ad se allicit, tamen iustitita hoc maxime efficit. Licet omnes fremant, dicam quod sentio. Vitia mentis, quamvis exigua sint, in maius excedunt. Inops etiamsi referre gratiam non potest, habere certe potest. Utilitas efflorescit ex amicitia, etiamsi tu eam minus secutus sis. 5.2 clauses with the concessive ut Ut desint vires, tamen est laudanda voluntas. Ne sit sane summum malum dolor, malum certe est. 5.3 clauses with the concessive cum Socraates, cum facile posset educi e custodia, noluit. 5.4 relative concessive clauses Hic, qui in collegio sacerdotum esset, est condemnatus. 5.5 participle construction Risus interdum ita repente erumpit ut eum cupientes tenere nequeamus. |
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6 - expressing a condition 6.1 condition with si Hoc nisi feceris, te non amabo. Hoc si non optimum, at certe bonum est. 6.1.1 no concern about realizability [constructed with indicative] Si nummos habeo, emo currum. 6.1.2 realizable [potential subjunctive present - action presented as lasting and unfulfilled -> incomplete aspect] Si nummos habeam, emam currum. [Et forsitan nummos habebo...] [potential subjunctive perfect - action presented as momentary and accomplished -> complete aspect] Si nummos habuerim, emerim currum. [Et forsitan nummos habebo...] 6.1.3 not realizable in the present Si nummos haberem, emerem currum. 6.1.4 not realizable in the past Si nummos habuissem, emissem currum. 6.2 participle construction Nec rogemus res turpes nec faciamus rogati. 6.3 conditional-proviso clauses with dum, dummodo, modo Oderint, dum metuant. Tu mihi scribas velim, dummodo ne his verbis scribas. |
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7 - making a comparison [constructed with the indicative, use subjunctive to add a nuance of subjectivity] 7.1 of manner clause introduced by ut, sicut, velut, quemadmodum, tamquam Ut salutaveris, ita salutaberis 7.2 of intensity clause introduced by quam, quantus, quantum, quanto, quanti, quot Quot homines, tot sententiae. 7.3 of identity and difference clause introduced by atque, ac Hic loquebatur aliter atque omnes. 7.4 of degree clause introduced by quam Plus tibi virtus tua dedit quam fortuna abstulit. 7.5 conditional comparison [realizable condition: the subjunctive present or subjunctive perfect] [non- realizable condition: the subjunctive imperfect] [unrealizable condition: the subjunctive pluperfect] clause introduced by ut si, velut si, ac si, quam si, tamquam si, tamquam, quasi and velut. Sic vivendum est tamquam in conspectu viveremus. |
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8 - expressing a contrast [constructed with the subjunctive following the rules of the sequence of tenses] clause introduced by the adversative cum Cum animalia cetera terram spectarent, os homini sublime dedit. |
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9 - expressing a restriction [constructed with the indicative, except for the quod-clauses] clause introduced by ut, quoad, quatenus, quantum, quam, quod Ille patre usus est, ut tum erant tempora, diti. Id faciam, quoad fieri potest. Quod sciam, orator est optimus. |
Source: Milena Minkova "Introduction to Latin Prose Composition",
Wimbledon Publishing Company, London:2001.